When someone is doing an activity for the inherent pleasure or interest, it is considered that the person is intrinsically motivated; on the opposite side, performing an activity for instrumental reasons, to avoid disapproval or obtain separable outcomes characterizes an extrinsically motivated person.
If an individual does not perceive a worthwhile reason to participate in an activity, then there is an absence of intrinsic or extrinsic motivation - defined in SDT as amotivation 3 3 Ryan R, Deci E. Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. Am Psychol. Vansteenkiste M. Examining intrinsic versus extrinsic exercise goals: Cognitive, affective, and behavioral outcomes.
J Sport Exerc Psychol. Psychol Inq. According to the Organismic Integration Theory, extrinsic motivation is composed of four behavioral regulations increasing in their degree of self-determination or autonomy.
The less self-determined form of extrinsic motivation is external regulation, which reflects the influence of external pressures or rewards on the behavior. Next, introjected regulation reflects self-imposed pressures like guilt, shame or ego protection. These two behavioral regulations express a form of external control in the individual behavior. In SDT, these regulatory mechanisms reflect a degree of internalization of the behavior, facilitating the understanding of exercise behavior in several contexts.
Exercise, physical activity, and self-determination theory: A systematic review. A test of self-determination theory in school physical education. A model of contextual motivation in physical education: Using constructs from self-determination and achievement goal theories to predict physical activity intentions. Analysis of the indirect effects of the quality of motivation on the relation between need satisfaction and emotional response to exercise. Int J Sport Psychol. Self-Determination Theory.
New York: The Guilford Press, Motivation in physical education classes: a self-determination theory perspective. Journal of Research and Theory in Education. Measuring student motivation for physical education: Examining the psychometric properties of the Perceived Locus of Causality Questionnaire and the Situational Motivation Scale. Psychol Sport Exerc. Perceived locus of causality, goal orientations, and perceived competence in school physical education classes.
Brit J Educ Psychol. J Pers Soc Psychol. Their aim was to create a scale that encompassed the full range of the SDT behavioral regulation spectrum except for integrated regulation. The academic motivation scale: A measure of intrinsic, extrinsic, and amotivation in education. A prospective study of participation in optional school psysical education using a self-determination theory framework. Teacher motivational strategies and student self-determination in physical education.
Yet, some issues with the internal consistency of introjected regulation scores and the discriminant validity of identified regulation and intrinsic motivation scores were reported 7 7 Standage M, Duda JL, Ntoumanis N. However, to our knowledge, no psychometric validation was made to ensure its feasibility in this particular language and context, an overly due problem in this field of study. Psychometric proprieties and invariance across gender were evaluated to ensure proper instrument feasibility.
Two independent samples of PE students were used in this study to ensure the robustness of the measurement instrument in a sample of the same population. The items are grouped into five factors with four items each , which reflect the behavioral regulations encompassed in the SDT motivational continuum. For the study data collection, authorizations were obtained from the school direction board. All participants enrolled voluntarily and provided an informed consent signed by them and their legal guardian.
Confidentiality was guaranteed and ensured. Before a PE class, a brief explanation of the study purposes was made and confortable conditions were provided to the completion of the questionnaire.
J Teach Phys Educ. Translation and content analysis for oral and written material. Berry Eds. This process was developed according to the following steps: 1 Preliminary Translation; 2 First Committee; 3 Second Committee this stage was over only when all the specialists agreed with each other and their opinion was unanimous towards the item contents ; 4 Pilot Study; 5 Final Review only syntax aspects.
Descriptive statistics including means and standard deviations, for the two samples were calculated for all variables. To undertake the confirmatory factor analysis, the recommendations of Byrne 21 21 Byrne B. Structural equation modelling with AMOS.
Basic concepts, applications, and programming 2nd ed. Multivariate Data Analysis 7th ed. New Jersey: Pearson Educational, Inc. Struct Equ Modeling. To examine if there was a distinction between factors i. A multi-group analysis is one of the crucial aspects in the development and use of psychometric instruments 24 24 Cheung G, Rensvold R. Evaluating goodness-of-fit indexes for testing measurement invariance. Testing measurement invariance and comparing latent factor means within a confirmatory factor analysis framework.
According to several authors 21 21 Byrne B. Differences in values between the models without constrains free parameters vs. To analyze if constructs in a same theory framework make sense, a correlational analysis was made between the PLOCQ factors and another SDT based instrument - Engagement Scale translated and validated by others; in preparation.
Engagement and disaffection as organizational constructs in the dynamics of motivational development. Wigfield Eds. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum, J Educ Psychol. A primary analysis of the data revealed that there were 10 multivariate outliers i. These participants were removed prior to conducting any further analysis, as postulated by several authors 21 21 Byrne B. Performance of bootstrapping approaches to model test statistics and parameter standard error estimation in structural equation modeling.
Descriptive analyses in Table 1 tend to show a normal univariate distribution of the data in both samples, with a slight bias to the right, and the tendency of answering near the center of the bi-polar Likert scale i. In Table 2 , it is possible to see that the initial model i. An analysis of the residual values between items and the modification indexes, allowed the identification of some fragilities. The model was readjusted with the elimination of two items see final models in table 2; see figure 1 , and reflected an improvement in the adjustment indexes, being in line with the values adopted in the methodology for each of the analyzed samples i.
In the model depicted in figure 1 , ordered relations between correlated variables appear, reflecting the simplex structure which is characteristic of the SDT framework 14 14 Ryan R, Connell J. In the calibration sample, factorial weights varied between.
In the validation sample, values ranged between. According to the results in table 2, all samples presented a good adjustment i. The invariance analysis of these models is expressed in table 5 , where results point to invariant models between samples i. These results suggest the following: in the configural invariance, the same number of factors was present in each group, remaining associated with the same group of items; in metric invariance, the factors of PLOCQp had the same understanding for both groups; in scale invariance, the latent and observable means were compared and valid among groups; in residual invariance, comparison between observable items was supported.
Psychometric properties and invariance across samples i. Can Psychol. For this matter, individual parameters were analyzed, and two items intrinsic motivation- 14; introjected regulation - 2 were removed because they showed associations with other factors e. This may suggest that proximity in motivational continuum reflects some difficulty in interpreting what was supposed in students with this particular question.
Some authors have also suggested that, when analyzing the motivational continuum in exercise settings, a bivalent introjected regulation may, in some individuals, reflect a more positive or negative valence 31 31 Assor A, Vansteenkiste M, Kaplan A. Identified versus introjected approach and introjected avoidance motivations in school and in sports: The limited benefits of self-worth strivings. Motriz: J. After these items removal, the final model i.
Further analysis also revealed good psychometric properties. The internal consistency i. Also, neither of these items showed cross-loadings nor very high residual values, being an adjustment indicator of the items on those factors 21 21 Byrne B.
On the other hand, some factors showed issues, namely identified regulation-intrinsic motivation and amotivation-external regulation both samples , that is, the factors were not distinguishable enough from each other 22 22 Hair, J, Black, W Babin, B Anderson, R. Toward a new measure of intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, and amotivation in sports: The sport motivation scale SMS.
This seems to indicate that there is not a universal support for the discriminant validity involving these constructs. Behavioral regulation assessment in exercise: exploring an autonomous and controlled motivation index. Span J Psychol. For the invariance analysis i. The re-specification of the model implies that when a model does not present adjustment to the data, the final re-specified model should be tested in another sample of the same population, ensuring proper validity and robustness.
A model of perceived locus of causality PLOC is developed, using children's self-reported reasons for acting. In Project 1, external, introjected, identified, and intrinsic types of reasons for achievement-related behaviors are shown to conform to a simplex-like ordered correlation structure in four samples. These reason categories are then related to existing measures of PLOC and to motivation.
A second project examines 3 reason categories external, introject, and identification within the domain of prosocial behavior. Relations with measures of empathy, moral judgement and positive interpersonal relatedness are presented.
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